圖 1. 觀測器架構
從上面的說明,不難發現,在觀測器中有一部分的動態方程式,必須是從"受控體"(plant)中複製過來的;另外,受控體的輸入以及量測輸出的資訊,也必須同時提供給觀測器;因此,不妨假設觀測器的狀態空間方程式如下(參考圖1):
\[ \begin{array}{rcl} \hat{\bf x}(k+1) & = & {\bf F}(k)\hat{\bf x}(k)+{\bf G}(k){\bf u}(k) + {\bf L}(k)({\bf y}(k)-\hat{\bf y}(k)) \\ \hat{\bf y}(k) & = & {\bf H}(k)\hat{\bf x}(k) \end{array} \] 其中$\hat{\bf x}$代表觀測器的狀態,用以估測實際的系統狀態${\bf x}$,${\bf L}$則是一個待決定的參數,稱為觀測器增益向量(observer gain vector)。定義觀測器誤差為:$\delta{\bf x}(k) := {\bf x} - \hat{\bf x}$,將前面的兩組方程式相減之後,可得到觀測誤差的動態方程式為:
\[ \delta{\bf x}(k+1) = ({\bf F}(k) - {\bf L}(k){\bf H}(k))\delta{\bf x}(k). \] 從前面介紹的觀測器的概念來看,我們當然希望觀測誤差為零,或者至少在經過足夠的時間之後,誤差為零;從上面這個動態方程式來看,$\delta{\bf x}$最後會趨近於零的充分且必要條件為:${\bf F}(k) - {\bf L}(k){\bf H}(k)$這個矩陣必須是漸近穩定的(asymptotically stable)。因此,觀測器的問題現在變成是要找到觀測器的增益向量${\bf L}$使得${\bf F}(k) - {\bf L}(k){\bf H}(k)$為漸近穩定。Kalman告訴我們,是否找的到這樣的向量,與系統的可觀測性(Observability)有關。這邊,我們暫時不討論可觀測性的問題,有興趣的讀者可以參考線性系統的書籍,大部分都有介紹。假設找的到這樣的矩陣${\bf L}$,則可確保由觀測器所得到之狀態空間估測值$\hat{\bf x}$,最後會"追"上系統真正的狀態空間變數${\bf x}$。
但是,若系統有雜訊的話,會發生甚麼問題嗎?由於雜訊多半僅能以機率的方式來描述,從數學上來看,觀測器的狀態無法真正追上受控系統的狀態,狀態空間變數的誤差$\delta{\bf x}(k)$不會趨近於零,而且因為系統有雜訊,$\delta{\bf x}(k)$會是一個隨機程序。我們知道,對一個隨機程序,最好的描述方式是用統計平均值,包括mean, variance等。既然現在無法令$\delta{\bf x}(k)$趨近於零,那在"最佳"的情況下,我們能做到甚麼程度呢?從統計的觀點來看,一個直覺地評估我們設計出來的觀測器的好壞的方式,第一個當然希望$\delta{\bf x}(k)$期望值為零(也就是說,至少可以"期望"${\bf x}$與$\hat{\bf x}$長時間下來的平均值是一樣的),第二個可能就是希望$\delta{\bf x}(k)$每次估測出來,"跳動"不會太大,在統計學的術語上就是"標準差"(standard deviation,其平方稱為變異量,variance)。這樣應該可以稱為是"最佳"的觀測器。選擇觀測器增益向量${\bf L}$,使得估測誤差$\delta{\bf x}$的mean為零,variance為最小,就是所謂的Kalman Filter。
(待續)
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